History enables us to understand how man has been working on his
History helps us to understand the past and the present, that help us to predict the
It helps us to understand the relationship between people in different
It helps us to understand technological transformation in human life g from stone age to iron age.
It helps us to get knowledge on
It helps us in making investigation on different
History helps us to understand our

TWO LEVELS OF LOOKING AT STUDYING HISTORY

1st level: History explains about man’s struggle to master his environment

i.e. People irrigating because of drought.

2nd level: History shows the relationship between man and man’s past.

I.e. Hunters and gathers or people met in hunting killed the prey and shared it

SOURCES OF HISTORY

We can obtain historical information through various sources. The main sources are:

Oral tradition
Historical sites
Written records/ documents
Archives
Museums
Archeology
Audio – Visual record , g : C assets,Cd’s,TV Programs etc.
Anthropology
Linguistics

1. ORAL TRADITIONAL

This involves the passing information by word of mouth through talking and listening. Oral Tradition pass historical information into two ways

Through culture practices like art, music, religion, riddles, songs, proverbs, superstition, poems and stories.
Narration of past

FUNCTIONS OF ORAL TRADITION

It preserves historical information of
It collects and pass historical information between generations in the
It helps researchers in data

ADVANTAGES OF ORAL TRADITION

It preserves and reveal historical information which are not
Both illiterate and literate people can obtain historical
Within oral tradition there are warnings and
It is the easiest and the cheapest method of obtaining
It is more live source, since it involves physical

DISADVANTAGE OF ORAL TRADITION

It needs much attention and power of
False information can be given by a story –
Narration of past events are centered to those people of status e kings, Queens, chief. White talking little about common society.
There is language problems when narrators use vernacular
It is difficult to distinguish what is real and what is imaginary
Translation is very difficult because some languages are no longer in

2. HISTORICAL SITES

Are special places where by the past human remains can be found and shown to the public?

These are places in which the remains of once lived human in the past can be found.

They comprise man’s physical development, tools that were made and used from time to

In these areas we find/see past human products and animal

Example of historical sites include Ismila, Olduvai Gorge, Kondoa Irangi, Bagamoyo, Zanzibar, Kilwa, , Mafia, Engaruka, Kagera etc in Tanzania.

Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntubi, Rusinga island, Magosi and Ishago in Uganda.

lake Rudolf (Turkana), Lake Naivasha, Njoro, Olongesailie, Lake Magadi, Lamu, Mombasa and Mt. Kenya. In kenya.

MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING IMPORTANT

HISTORICAL SITES.

FUNCTIONS OF HISTORICAL SITES

Preserve historical information for the coming
They are useful sources of information and to reconstruct
They are the symbols of social cultural heritage to the society concern past human tools, rock, paints etc.

ADVANTAGE OF HISTORICAL SITES.

They helps for practical historical learning

e.g Through observation of the past human tools, rock, paints.

Used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels of technology, economic development of political organization-reached by the past societies.
Act as centers of
They help in transforming theoretical teaching of history to practical historical
It acts as the resource centers to
It provides employment opportunities: eg

DISADVANTAGES OF HISTORICAL SITES

It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in historical sites
Many of the historical sites are found on remote areas hence difficult for many people to visit them.

3. ARCHAEOLOGY

Is the scientific study of past human remains

This is the study of the material remains of man’s past through scientific
The one specializes in archaeology is called ARCHAEOLOGIST.
Archaeology involve excavations (digging) of the remains of man’s past historical sites and interpretation.
The famous archaeologist in East Africa was Dr, Louis Leaky with his wife Mary
Archaeology involves the use of carbon 14 dating to determine plants and animal

FUNCTIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY

Gives important information about man through different
It is a useful method of revealing soil covered historical
It arouse curiosity of searching past man historical information

ADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY

It helps to know when and how people lived in a certain
Past objects tells us about the life and culture of past
It helps us to know and reveal the technology, pastoral,agricultural and commercial activities of the past man.
Through excavation we get knowledge of artifacts g pottery, building etc.
It reveal the religious beliefs of the past

We can compliment other sources of information through archaeology. history.
We can know the past relationship between different people such as trading activities, Migration, Marriage, Birth, death and political relation.

DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHAEOLOGY

It consumes time because of
It can not reveal the past people’s
It can not give out reasons for historical events such as
It needs full experts and advanced
Poorly interpreted remains can bring false

It can not tell anything about the past social organization.

4. ARCHIVES

These are places where collection of private and public documents and old records are preserved.

These documents includes personal letters, Early Travelers and Missionary records, Traders writings, personal and government files, political parties documents, etc.

FUNCTION OF ARCHIVES

Archives preserve public and private records that have enduring value to the

The records in the archives are made available for use by the However not all records can be viewed by everyone.

Archives collect records of enduring value from various For example,the nation archives have records from different regions of the country.

The archives staff maintains registers of the record in the

Archives promote awareness of the availabilities and use of non – current records to the public

Archives have facilities for restoring damaged documents of enduring value

The historical information in the archives ensures continuity . For example,company policies from previous years can still guide the employees today

ADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES

Easy to identify ideas and literacy level of the past
It is easy to identify the exact date of historical

It used to store historical
Easy to get historical information from different places and different

DISADVANTAGES OF ARCHIVES

It may lead false information, if Author is
Illiterate people can not get historical
It is not easy to get information of the society whose information are not
It is difficult to get remote information from
It is non renewable once disrupted either by wind or other external

5. MUSEUMS

These are places or buildings where information and objects are
It involves all terms which shows culture, political economic and technological development from the past to present.
Objects can be Early coins, clothes, minerals cowries, religious and ceremonial
Museums can be national, Regional, Districts and

e.g National Museums in Dar es salaam, Bagamoyo, Butiama, Kalenga – Iringa

FUNCTIONS OF MUSEUMS

Preserve historical documents and
Shows concrete remains of
It is the place for tourist and study
It is the center for cultural and national

ADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS

It preserve objects which are used as teaching
Museums preserve culture and national
It used by researchers (source of information).
It acts as tourist
People learn about technological
Enable learners to arouse creativity

DISADVANTAGES OF MUSEUMS.

It needs knowledgeable

It is possible to distort information through biasesby the museum

Poor preservation of the past items eg .coins,pieces of cloth,slaves chain can distort

It needs extensive care to maintain it’s beauty or

6. WRITTEN RECORDS

Are the the documents which comprise written historical information.

These includes books,letters,maps, magazines,journal, newspaper,minutes of meetings and conferences
Written records can be found in libraries ,schools,colleges,universities,internet cafes,offices etc.

FUNCTION OF WRITTEN RECORDS

Written records provides pictures of

These records reflect public at the time of writing. For example, the letters to the editor in newspaper express the readers ‘ feelings on current issue

Written records serve as stores of a large variety of information, including discoveries, government policies,statements, religious beliefs,fashion,speeches and agreement.

In-depth reports of daily events are kept as written records,. For example, in a diary,newspaper or biography.

ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN RECORDS

It is easy to get
Easy to make

It is helpful in doing
They can be kept for a long

DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN RECORDS

It can give false information if they are biased by the
It is difficult to read everything from written
They are subject to be badly
Illiterate people can not get

7. LINGUISTICS

Is the scientific study and analysis of language.

It includes the study of sound, structure, information and relationship between various language groups.

ADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTICS

It helps to get information from various
Enable to discover links between different people
It help to determine dates of historical event g “Aluta Continua” (period of struggle for independence in Mozambique).

LIMITATIONS OF LINGUISTICS

It consume time and finance learning a particular
Through translation one can commit some important
The present language may be

8. ANTHROPOLOGY

Is the study of the society’s cultural systems, beliefs, ideas etc.

The study can give important information about movements, settlements and production activities of the past.

DATING HISTORICAL EVENTS

Historians usually divide time into several categories, namely

Day – is a duration of twenty four hours (24hrs)
A week – is a duration of seven days (7 days)
Month – is a duration of four weeks (4 weeks)
A year – is a duration of twelve months (12 months)
A decade- is a duration of ten years (10 yrs)

A century – is a duration of of one hundred years (100 yrs)
A millennium – is a duration of thousand years (1000 yrs)
A generation – is the average differences on ages between a child and his/her
Age – is a period based on man’s economic activities and the type of tools used g stone age, iron age, Industrial age, Science and Technology age, ect.
A period – is determined by one continuous event lasting for a number of

e.g Period of slave trade in East Africa Period of long distance trade

Period of colonial rule in Africa

Some points have been chosen in order to divide time

Year ZERO –present the year when Jesus Christ was
It is known as Anno Domino

(A.D) meaning the year of the Lord

All years before Zero are called (B.C) meaning (Before Christ)

HOW TO DETERMINE DATES

Dates are instrument in the science of History, this historians divided dates into four ways: –

Recalling events : – here important events are recalled/remembered g drought, farming, floods, birth, eruption of diseases etc.
By studying languages: – some names help people to remember dates of some E.g word “Karafuu”- started when cloves were introduced in Zanzibar.
Carbon 14 – Is scientific method of determining It used in the finding dates for remains of animals or plants which died beyond 5000 years ago.

Carbon 14 is a gas found in carbon-dioxide which exist in the
It absorbed by plant or other living When died carbon 14 that has already observed starts to decay at a fixed rate from the time of death.

Orders of events: Ways of showing order of events, periods and ages, among them are: –

Time graph
Time chart
Time line
Family tree

Example of time chart

S/N

PERIOD A.D

EVENTS

1884 – 1885

The Berlin conference

1914 – 1918

The first world war period

1939 – 1945

The second world war period

1961

Tanganyika became independent

1962

Tanganyika became republic

1992

Introduction of multipartism in Tanzania

(d) Family tree

EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

EVOLUTION OF MAN ,TECHNOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENT

Evolution of Man

Is the gradual changes development of plants and animals from a simple form to a more complex form. This change leads to existence0f plants and animals that are different from the original plants and animals.

The theory of evolution of man.

The theory of evolution tries to explain the origin of man by describing the the changes that our ancestors underwent until they were like modern man.

There are two theories which attempt to explain the origin of man.

1^st THEORY OF CREATION

This theory explains that there is super natural power that creates everything.

This super natural power is God. Refer from the Holy Bible and Qur’an e.g from Biblical knowledge (Genesis chapter 1:26) it says that : – God created man by using soil, at first they created a man and then later a woman.

These two creatures established their relationship and this marked the beginning of human family.

2^nd THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF MAN

The theory of evolution of man was proposed by an English man known as Charles Darwin

(1809 – 1882)

The theory says that: – man’s species has been changing gradually from lower stage to better stage due to environment.

Changing goes hand in hand with improvement of methods of obtaining food, cloth and
The gradual change of man is called The first man belong to the family of primates which included Ape, Gorilla, Monkey and Chimpanzee.
These animals lived in the forest walking on four limbs and their bodies covered with
Because of environmental changes and diminishing of forests, they started to live in open
Environment forced them to adopt new way of
The forelimbs instead of walking become special for tool making and
Forelimbs become free from
The walking is known as Bi – pedalism STAGES OF MAN’S EVOLUTION

PRIMATES (Ape, Gorilla, Monkey, Chimpanzee)

Characteristics

Their bodies were covered with lots of
They walked on four limbs
They lived in dense
They had poorly mental
They totally depended on nature ate raw food

2. AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICAN FAMILY

This stage started about 12million years ago (B.C) when primates changed to near man. This stage divided into two

Zinjanthropus
Homo habilis

Zinjanthropus

In this stage:

Fore limbs were free from
Hind limbs were used for standing and body
Man started to design, make and use
Man become

Homo habilis

It lived between 1,500,000 and 750,000

Homohabilis become more skillful man, because was systematic tools

Homohabilis believed to be the direct ancestor of modern

He had bigger brain and he was more systematic tool

The skull of those creatures were discovered at Olduvai Gorge and omo in Eastern and Rudolf in Kenya.

3^rd stage: Homo erectus

Man was fully moving
He become more skillful tools maker than
It’s fossils have been dug up in Olorgesaille and near Lake Turkana in the Kenya , Olduvai gorge in Tanzania.

4^th stage: Homo sapiens

Characteristics

He is a true man of today
Has a large brain in size

Has less thick jaws
He was highly skillful man
He made tools by using stones and

NB: the theory of evolution has been supported by Archaeologist Dr.Leakey in Olduvai Gorge in 1959

Basic characteristics of human evolution.

Development of man’s ability to design, make and use
Ability of man to walk on two limbs. (Bi-pedalism)
Ability of man to
Ability of man to domesticate plants and

5^th Homo sapiens sapiens

Homo sapiens is a modern man.

Homo sapiens is believed to have evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens about 50,000 years ago. This man has a large brain and great intelligence.

Stone age

Age – Is a period based on man’s economic activities and type of the tools used . eg , Stone age , Iron age ,Science technology age etc.

Stone age: This is historical period in which man made and used stone tools. Stone age is divided into three ages

Early or Old stone
Middle stone
Late or new stone age

EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE

This is the first period of stone age. It existed between 1,750,000 B.C and 750,000 B.C Zinjanthropus- was the only man existed in this period.

the early stone tools were pebbles and

man used these tool for

killing and skinning animal
digging up
Cutting tree
For

Man obtained his food by hunting and gathering

In this period man had low ability to control his environment.

MIDDLE STONE AGE TOOLS

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY OR OLD STONE AGE

In East Africa stone age sites are found at Olorgasaille, Nsongezi and Olduvai.

Man lived primitive life depending on
Man made and use crude (poor)
Man lived by hunting and
Man ate raw food i.e meat
Man walked up
Man lived in
Man did not wear

MIDDLE STONE AGE

This stage covered the period between 750,000BC to 50,000 BC. This period man improved his stone tools.

Tools were -smaller,sharper and easier to handle.

Tools were spear, Arrows, Needles, Stone picks, Knives etc. These tools were used for

Digging up
Killing and skinning
Cuttings &

THE NEW STONE AGE TOOLS

THE DISCOVERY OF FIRE

How man discovered fire?

Fire was discovered by man who was scratching pieces of wood using his
The more he continued scratching, the pieces of wood got heat the smoke come out, the scratch caused friction of scratched wood and led to emission of fire.

IMPORTANCE OF FIRE TO MAN

Man started to eat roasted food i.e meat
Man started to live in cold
Man used fire to clean
Man used fire to provide light at
Fire used to kill small animals g rabbit
With fire man increased working hours .
Man use fire to attract
Man used fire for defense from dangerous animals like

MAN’S ANCESTOR MAKING FIRE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF MIDDLE STONE AGE

Man discovered
Man developed some religious
Man started to live complex
Man’s main occupation were: –

Hunting and gathering
Sedentary/ nomadic life

THE LATE STONE AGE (NEW STONE AGE)

In East Africa, late stone age started from around 50,000 BC to the first millennium AD.

In this stage man used better tools compared to the previous stone
Tools become more sharper and smaller in
Tools were stone exes, blades, spears, arrows,
Man started permanent

The tools were still largely made of stone but they were far better than those of earlier periods. This period marked the beginning of settled communities.

In areas such as Kondoa Irangi, paintings and drawings in the carves proved this
The paintings and drawings show the shape of tools used and animal

Characteristics of the late stone age.

Man used better tools compare to the previous
Man started to domesticated plant and
Man become food
Increase of
It was beginning of settled communities and
This period marked to be primarily on division of

Example: women become child bearers and cares while man for protecting the families and hunting

Informal education started in this period.

THE LATE STONE AGE TOOLS

IRON AGE

Iron age is believed to have started during the first millennium D.
This was the period when man made and used Iron
The discovery and use of iron improved man’s standard of
Iron tools were discovered about 3000 years
The first people to make and use iron tools in Africa were the people of Ethiopia and
Iron skills and knowledge were not uniform or the same in
The first important towns for iron smelting were
- Meroe in Sudan
- Axum in Ethiopia
- Nok area in West Africa
In East Africa, it is believed that man started to use iron from the first millennium D

E.g. Iron discovered earlier in Engaruka, Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno and Western shores of lake Victoria.

Iron tools included iron spears,arrows, Axes, Hoes etc
Iron technology helped early African societies to
- Produce and use iron

To produce better weapons for

THE RESULT OF USING IRON TOOLS

It led to increase in food Man could now clear his areas for cultivation.
Increase in population due to more
There was emergence of specialization e. Iron workers (black smiths) and food producers.
It led to the emergence of complex villages / development of political organization as kingdom and states.
Tools were highly improved and more efficient,
There was expansion of trade relation (expansion of trade).

DIAGRAM OF IRON TOOLS

THE MAJOR EARLY IRON CENTRES IN AFRICA

DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT

Introduction:

Environment : Is total surroundings of man include man made and natural features.

Land, water bodies, atmosphere, mountains, hills, Infrastructures i.e buildings, roads, etc.

TECHNOLOGY: Is the scientific knowledge used to design and make tools.

DEVELOPMENT: Refer to progressive changes from low to high standard of living.

HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Handcraft industries: These were industries of which man used hands and skills to produce tools and weapons.

Industries-Is the place where raw materials are processed into finished goods eg cotton-cloth

Specialized handcraft industries in Africa.

Salt making industries
Iron working
Copper mining
Gold mining
Pottery making
Spinning and weaving industries
Bark – cloth industries
Canoe making industries

Salt making industries – These are industries which engaged in production of soil in pre- colonial Africa.

Uses of salt

It is used for adding flavor taste for the food in the
It is used for preservation of food like fish and

Methods of obtaining salt

From different reeds

Reeds were collected ,dried and burned, the ashes would be filtered while the ashes remain liquid would be evaporated and residue would be used as salt.

Places: – Near Lake Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert, among Baganda and Bahaya tribes and among Mang’anja people near shores of Lake Nyasa.

2. Boiling and evaporating method

Sea or ocean water put into pans and left to evaporate, the salt crystals would be collected and used as salt.

Places: around coastal areas.

3. Salt mining

Salt was mined under neath rocks.

Places: At Taghaza, Bilma around lake Chad in western Sudan. Near lake Bangwela and river Luapala in central Africa.

4. Water by fire

Spring water containing salt was boiled and finally salt was obtained.

Places with salt; in uvinza salt spring along river malagarasi in central Africa. Uses of salt.

Salt is used as an ingredient in
Food
It is used as medicine i.e. on freshly cut wounds
It was used as a medium of exchange (trade exchange).
Animal hides were cured using salt before used to make
In Egypt salt was used to preserve a dead body. (mummification )

IRON INDUSTRY

By the beginning of the 19^th century, most of the African societies were able to produce their own iron. The famous blacksmith in Africa was able to produce their own iron. In Tanzania there were iron deposits in Itewe near chunya, liganga, and Uluguru Mountains.

Nubian of Sudan along the river
People along Futa djalon and Niger river in West
The Mang’anja people of
The Venda people of northern
The Mashona of

There were also deposits in Algeria, Tunisia, morocco, Liberia, Sieraleone Angola, and Zimbabwe.

In Ethiopia blacksmiths were not allowed to inherit land or even to inter marry with other

Uses of iron.

Iron was used to make agricultural
iron was used to make weapons e. spears, swords etc
Iron was a medium of exchange, some people used iron bars or hoes as taken when paying bride price i.e. the Sukuma in the northern west Tanganyika.
Iron was also a measure of wealth, people who had more iron than others were considered wealthy.
Iron was an important trade commodity e. Masai traded cattle for iron weapons from the pare and the Kikuyu.
Some objects used in religious ceremonies were made of iron e. Yoruba and fon made iron objects to honour Ogun (the God of iron and war).

COPPER MINING AND THE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES.

The production and use of copper In pure colonial Africa was wide spread. Pure copper from the earth’s surface. By 300 BC, The Egyptians were already producing cooper. Ibo and Yoruba in Nigeria. Central Kafua River and the Gwai River in Zambia. South Africa, Democratic Republic of Congo formerly known as Zaire.

Uses of cooper.

It is used to make ornaments such as bangles and earnings for example Ndebele women wore cooper and brass neckless, rings as a symbol of representing their husband’s
Used to make pots, pans and other
Used to make weapons such as daggers and
Bars of copper were used as a medium of exchange and measure of
Copper was used as trade

Gold was one among the 1^st metals to be used in Africa. It was easy to find gold near the earth’s surface. In most parts of Africa, gold was found in the river bed, gold was obtained by washing gold bearing rocks for example river sabi and river Zambezi. in Ashanti and Gyain in Ghana and Meroe in Sudan.

Uses of gold.

It is used to make various types of ornaments for example rings, earrings, necklace and bracelets (made funery masks for the pharaohs in Egypt).
Gold used to make weapons for example knives, handles especially for important
Gold was used in making utensils such as plates, cups and spoons for the
In Egypt gold was used to make
Gold was an important trade commodity, in East Africa the town of kilwa became prosperous due to gold trade.
Gold was used as a currency as well as measure of
Rich people used gold to decorate

Other hand craft industries

POTTERY MAKING.

Pottery was practiced in areas where there was clay soil. Famous people where; Akamba, kisii, Batwa, Gisu and Pare.

Advantage of pottery.

Enables communities to make containers for cooking
Produced containers for storing water, milk, beer and
Pottery produce items or goods for trade for example massai exchange cattle for
Pottery containers were used for serving food and drinks at

WEAVING AND BASKETRY INDUSTRY.

Some people were skilled n making various items by weaving. The required raw materials included grasses, leaves and fibers. In East Africa the Lou were experts in basketry and Nyakyusa were experts in making mats.

Advantages of weaving and basketry.

Some communities built houses and
Supplied communities with items such as beds and
Provided items for
Provided containers to carry loads easily, for example Kikuyu and Kamba(Kenyans).
Woven fish troops and
Provided storage for agricultural

TEXTILE PRODUCTION/CLOTH MAKING INDUSTRY.

Textile production is the making of cloth from different materials. Bark cloth was made from tree barks among the Nyakyusa, Buhaya and Buganda. Silk production was mainly in Nigeria and Madagascar.

Wool obtained from sheep, goat, and camel. Cotton was mainly grown by the Yoruba in Nigeria and in Guinea. A among the Fipa, items were made textile including prepared blankets, carpets and clothes.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the domestication of plants and animals. Agriculture began over 10000 years ago. In Africa agriculture began in the Nile valley in Egypt around 7000 B.C

Factors that contributed to the beginning of agriculture.

There were plants and
Increase of human population, natural environment could not provide adequate
Changes of climate e. drought or occurrence of drought.
Competition for food between the humans and the
People searched for goods far away from their

There were mainly three types of agriculture practiced in ancient Africa:

Pastoralism
Crop cultivation
Mixed farming

Crop cultivation.

Different types of crops were grown in various regions of Africa depending on the natural resources.

Crop cultivation was divided into two

Shifting cultivation
Permanent cultivation

Shifting cultivation

In this system land was cultivated and planted for sometime for example about three years, then the farmers would shift their farming activities to a new area. This farming practice was to allow the land to regain its fertility and control diseases and pests. In Africa shifting cultivation was common in the central, western and southern Tanzania (miombo wood land) and Eastern Kenya). This system was possible where the area was low populated (moderate climate/average amount of rainfall), soil was light and fertility was easily hausted.

Permanent crop cultivation.

Permanent crop cultivation was adopted in areas or regions with dense population. There was no extra land to move to availability of rainfall, also irrigation, terracing and fertilizers(manure) were applied. Examples of these areas where permanent cultivation was carried out include the following:

Cambrai region in the north eastern
Among the Chaggas on the slopes of mountain
The Lozi of
The Akamba of
Slopes of mountain Meru, southern highland of Tanzania and central Kenyan
Indian Ocean coastaline, North west of Lake

Mixed farming.

This was kind of agriculture which includes crop cultivation and animal keeping, mainly in glass land areas with seasonal rainfall

The glass land areas were goods for growing crops and postures for animals

-The crops grown was such as

Sorgham
Maize
Cassava
Beans
Millet

-Animals kept were:-

Goats
Donkey
Cattles
Horses
Sheeps

-This kind of agriculture was common among the Waha, Nyamwezi,Fipa,Hehe,Kikuyu etc

PASTORALISM

Pastoralism is the practice of keeping livestock such as cattle, sheep, camels and goats. One important factor in the spread of pastoralism in Africa was the presence or absence of the tsetsefly.These flies caused sleeping sickness to human and trypasonomiasis to domestic animals.The pastoralist avoided tsetsefly infected areas especially in the moist low-lying valleys and thick forest regions.Examples of pastrolists in Africa are:

The Fulani of west Africa
The Gaua and Somali of North-East Africa
Masai of East Africa
Barabaig, Karamajong of East Africa

There are two types of pastoralism

Nomadic pastoralism
Sedentary pastoralism

Nomadic pastoralisim.

Is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock in search of water and pastures. Many nomadic pastoralists lived on meat, milk and blood. They occupy the scrub land and the savannah regions. Those areas get little rain fall.

examples of nomadic pastoralists include:

Tourane’s
The Fulani
The Barbeigr
The Omomo
The karamajong
The

Sedentary pastoralism.

Sedentary means staying or living in the same area. Sedentary pastrolists did not move from place to place. Examples are the agriculturalist maasai (kwavi), the animals kept by such communities are fewer than those kept by nomadic pastoralists.

How agriculture changed man’s life.

It led to the production of more food in these
Agriculture forced people to settle down in one
It encouraged social and political
It led to the expansion of exchange trade due to
It encouraged specialization of work in the society, for example people begun to practice medicine, priestly duties and different crafts.
Some people became wealthier than others in the society due to the presence of more land and animals.
The agriculturists were forced to come up with new religions that could save their animals or livestock, For example new Gods.
Agriculture led to the introduction of science and For example in Egypt, there was need for irrigation.

TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and services between There was need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities. Trade tends to develop in any society where there is surplus production.

METHODS OF TRADE.

Barter trade is the exchange of goods for goods, for example exchange of pots for goats or maize.
A currency method of trade is where money is In pre-colonial Africa iron, hoes, rolls of cloth, copper rods, salt and gold were used as money.

LOCAL TRADE.

Refers to the kind of trade which is conducted within the same geographical area.

In local trade goods are exchanged between people living in the same geographical area, such as a town or village. Local trade was not for profit making but just to obtain essential goods. i.e. pastoral communities like the Maasai needed vegetables and grains from cultivators like the Nyakyusa and the Chaga.

Impacts of local trade.

Local trade united people within the same
Communities obtained goods such as tools, weapons, food stuffs and medical
Transport routes were

Some important market centers emerged along the market
Local trade encouraged communities to expand

REGIONAL TRADE.

Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another (Trade conducted between two different geographical regions). Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods compared to local trade. It was not for profit making. For example regional trade were Trans Sahara trade, Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa. Regional trade in the pre-colonial Africa took place in 19^th century.

THE KAMBA. The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northen route in the 19^th century. They Kamba caravan brought ivory, guns, hides and beeswax from the interior. From the Coast they obtained cloth, salt, copper, cowrie’s shells and jewellery.

THE YAO. The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa. They also captured and sold slaves from neighbouring communities, Yao chiefs such as Mpanda, Mataka, Machemba and Mtalika dominated the Southern route during the long distance trade.

THE NYAMWEZI. The Nyamwezi dominated the central routeconducted trade between the interior of Tanganyika and the coast. The Nyamwezi sold slaves and ivory, hide rhinoceros horn. Nyamwezi traders succeeded because of the following reasons.

The Nyamwezi leaders such as the Msirikazi, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mirambo supported the trade.
Nyamwezi were centrally placed on the route to the
High demand for trade items such as ivory and
There was existence of variety of trade items such as ivory and
Zanzibar needed slaves and ivory in the 1800 By the 1830 AD there were three main trade routes i.e.
The Southern route: controlled by
The Central route: controlled by the
The Northern route: controlled by the Kamba traders from the coast brought cloth, beads, wire and guns.

-from interior goods were ivory and slaves.

Impacts/ effects of regional trade.

Positive consequences/impacts.

Some traders became very e.g Mirambo and Isike.
The communities were able to obtain new commodities g guns, clothes, beads, ivory, etc.

The rise of trade centers such as Saadans, Pangani, Bagamoyo, Tabora,Ujiji, Voi, and
The rise of trade
The rise of powerful Empires/ Kingdoms such as
New food crops such as maize, rice and cassava were
Spread of Islam by the Arabs to the interior Tabora and

Negative impacts.

The rise of inter-tribal wars in Oder to get
Many elephants were killed as there was high demand of
It led to depopulation and under development in some
Slave raids caused insecurity and loss of innocent
Foreigners used trade routes to reach to the
Exploitation of African wealth by Europeans and
Decline of local industries in

EAST AFRICA MAP SHOWING ROUTES,COMMODITIES AND SOCIETIES INVOLVED IN LONG DISTANCE TRADE.

TRANS SAHARAN TRADE

Trans Sahara trade was the trade conducted across the Sahara desert. It involved the people of Northern Africa and the people of Western Sudan.This trade started long time ago between 3000BC to 2000BC. It became important in the 1^st century AD after the people of West Africa to discover the use of camel and led to formation of many trade routes. The Trans Saharan trade was known as dumb trade because there was no common language which was used.

People who involved in the trade.

West Africa
North Africa
Savannah Region

MOVEMENT OF TRADERS.

People (traders) organized themselves in groups known as CARAVANS Goods involved in the trade

Kola nuts, gold, salt, food stuffs, Ivory, clothes, gold, bee-wax, slaves and ostrich feathers goods from West. And from North Africa salt and animal skin. Goods from Europe and Asia were cotton and silk cloth, swords, guns, metal pans, horses and Arabic books.

Trade routes :

Western route- From Sijilmasa, Fez in Morocco passed through Taghaza, Taodeni, Walata, Audaghost, and Kumbi Saleh to Timbuktu.
Central route- This passed Tunis, Ghat, Ghamese, Kano, Gao and Hausa
Eastern route- This began in Tripol, Marzul and

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE GROWTH OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

The following are some of the factors that contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade:

Stability of the communities: Both North African and Western Sudan zone were politically stable. For example leaders like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa collected taxes and established guides on trade routes. This enabled the people to conduct trade without fear. Up to the end of the 15th century AD many traders were motivated to come to Western Sudan for trade.
Western Sudan provided goods needed by traders from These goods included gold, ivory and slaves. Through trading Western Sudan exchanged her own commodities with goods from Western Europe and Asia. In turn, she got clothes, guns and other commodities. The

surplus production in Western Sudan was adequate to sustain demand for products such as kolanuts and gold, hides, ivory slaves, whereas Taghaza produced enough salt to meet the needs in Western Sudan. The high production capacity in the region enhanced the growth of the Trans Saharan trade.

Honesty: The Berbers of North Africa and the African traders of Western Africa trusted each other. Traders brought in commodities without fear of theft and robbery, enabling the trade to
The use of camels for transport suited the desert conditions and facilitated the development of the Trans-saharan trade. These animals could not only carry more commodities than horses and human porters, but also endured desert conditions. Camels can survive without water for a longtime. This convenient means of transport strengthened the development of the Trans-saharan
Geographical location of the region: The location and climate favoured the production of kola nuts and other foodstuffs that were needed in the community, especially the forest region to the south. The region of Western Sudan had no impassable forests because many areas were covered by short This enabled traders to cross the desert without fear or any difficulty.
The invention of a medium of exchange contributed to the growth of the Trans Saharan trade. At the beginning, only the silent barter system of trade was Later on, cowrie shells were introduced as a convenient medium of exchange. This in turn facilitated the development of the Trans-saharan trade.
From the nothern part, the Berbers provided capital to many traders who used to cross the sahara desert.
Removal of language barrier: This was attained after Arabic language became the trader’s medium of This in turn facilitated the trade by making communication between the traders easy.
Absence of competition for trading activities in the region: There were no regular ships that visited the coast of West Africa. As a result, what was produced from the forest zone was peacefully transported to North Africa through the Saharan desert.
Scarcity of commodities like gold and

(xi )Introduction of horses, which were used in conquest and expansion.

Effects of the Trans Saharan Trade in Africa.

It led to the growth of empires like Ghana, Mali etc
It increased development of
It led to the introduction of Arabic Islamic religion
Formation of mixed races example half cast
Growth of town and cities eg Jenne, Timbukutu, Gao and

THE DECLINE OF THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

by the second half of the nineteenth century, the volume of Trans-saharan trade started to decline. A number of obstacles or problems have been identified to explain the decline. These are:-

Strong desert winds: The traders could not withstand the hazards of sand Many abandoned the trade as a result.

Traders faced the danger of getting lost in the desert because the routes were not Once traders got lost, they would wander in the desert for a long time and eventually die of thirst and starvation.

Traders were subjected to attacks by desert robbers who made their living by stealing from trade In the process, traders lost their lives and goods. This discouraged traders from participating effectively in the trade.

The extreme climatic conditions were unfavourable to The heat and high temperatures during the day and every low temperatures at night due to the absence of cloud cover discouraged traders.

Traders faced the danger of highly poisonous desert creatures whose bites could result in death. These included snakes and scorpions.

Traders faced language This hampered communication during trade. As such “silent trade” had to be used initially.

The development of the Trans-Atlantic rout across the Atlantic Ocean to Europe: commodities like ivory and slaves were transported quickly to the coast of West Africa from where they wer transported to Thus the trade routes shifted from the Saharan desert to the Atlantic. Instead of the direct route to the North, they went via the coast of West Africa.

Commodities obtained from Western Sudan such as salt and gold faced competition from similar goods from other America cheaply. As result, the volume of Trans-saharan trade decreased because Western Sudan could no longer clain a monopoly in production of certain commodities like salt and gold. Also gold from Zimbabwe via Sofala port by the Portuguese ended up in Europe.

The abolition of slave trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-saharan Slaves were the main item of trade. When slave trade was abolished, trade started to decline.

Shortage of water also led to the decline in trade. The oases in the Saharan desert provided water seasonally but they sometimes dried This made it difficult for the traders to cross the Saharan desert.

Wars: The war in Morocco and the one between Christians and Muslims disrupted the smooth running of the The Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in 1591 AD disturbed the growth of the trade by taking gold at Wangara.

Finally, the Trans-saharan trade collapsed in the 16th century. From this period onwards, west Africa witnessed the expansion of European occupation on the coast of West Africa.

TRANS SAHARAN TRADE ROUTE

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS

KINSHIP/CLAN ORGANIZATION.

THE FAMILY.

Family means a combination of wife husband and children. Family was the basic and the simplest means of production in the early agricultural societies.

THE CLAN ORGANIZATION

Clan means a combination of several related families with a common ancestor. clan organization combined with both the matrilineal and patrilineal societies. In the patrineal societies clan heritage was based on the father, in the matrilineal clan heritage was based on the mother examples of this society were Mweras, Kambas and Kikuyus whom others are patrineals. The main economic activity in the clan

organization was agriculture. clan is controlled or ruled by the clan’s head. More examples of matrilineal

societies; The Ngindo, Zaramo, Makua and Matumbi.

DUTIES OR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD

To distribute land to the communities or clan
To preserve traditions and customs of the
To preserve land belonging to the
To settle disputes and
To find wives for boys and husbands for

Types of clan organizations in agricultural societies.

There are two types of clan organizations in agricultural societies;

Matrilineal
Partrilineal Matrilineal clan organization.

This is a society where by the husband moved to the wife’s family and children of the new family belonged to the mother’s(wife’s clan). As a result clan heritage was based on the mother’s clan. Uncles have to make all the important decisions concerning the children and the nephews of their sisters. Matrilineal age in Africa was practiced among the Makonde, Makua, Mwera and the Yao of Tanzania and the Kamba of Kenya.

Patrilineal clan organization societies.

This is the system of organization in which the clan heritage was based on the father’s line and all children bared the name of the father. The husband had to pay substantial bride price in different forms such as cattle, goats, etc in Oder to get the wife, the bride price could be stored as wealth, in this system all the children of the new family belonged to the father’s clan.

By the 18th and 19th century clan system changed to chief train ship after several came to be controlled under one leader.

AGE SET ORGANIZATION.

This kind of socio-political organization based on age and sex. In order for one to fit in the society one was required to fulfill certain obligations. Often the main productive activity was based on the harsh environments. Such as arid grass land and semi arid, in these areas poor soil could not support agriculture economy but vegetation could be used for animal husbandry.

Age set organization was the determinant form of organization in pastoral societies. The best example of these societies were the Maasai , Nyakyusa of East Africa, Hausa in West Africa and the Khoi Khoi of South Africa. The division of responsibilities and duties was based on age and sex and was usually done during intuition ceremonies. Youth were taught special responsibilities. Age set covered a specific group of years for example;

Children group aged 0-8years were regarded as non producers They were not directly involved in production.

Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animals, trading young animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women.

Moran group( people between youth and adults aged between 35yers) and above these were soldiers of the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as follows;

To protect the whole society as trained

To protect live stock against dangerous animals and raiders

To increase the number of animals through raiding their neighbours

To travel with their herds in search for water and

Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40years and above it consisted of elders who were divided in groups namely;

Junior elders
Elders
And senior elders

Responsibilities of elders :

To control live stock and all the properties on behalf of their
To enable norms and ethics to govern the
They were top overseers of all the spiritual and political matters of the
They were responsible for counseling other members of the
To settle disputes among the society members
They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were highly

NTEMISHIP :

Ntemi comes from the word “kutema” which means opening up of new land. It also means finding a locality.Ntemi was the name given to a leader who organized the action of opening up new land and controlled the people, Ntemiship was being practised in Unyamwezi by 1300 AD. It then spread in the neighbouring such as the Sukuma, Sangu, Hehe, Kimbu, Gogo and Bena of Tanzania. There were about 300 Ntemiship in Tanzania in the 18thC. Among the Sukuma, the ruler in Ntemiship organization was

called Ntemi. He became Ntemi because he was the founder of the locality. He was chosen by a counsel of elders choosing a person to become Ntemi depended on his wisdom courage and experience.

Responsibilities of the Ntemi :

He was the top authority in the political and judicial matters provided overall guidance in the
He enforced proper uses of resources such as land, water, forest resources
He was the overseer of the community food
He settled disputes in the
He had the religious He led the people in his community in performing religious ceremonies and offering sacrifices to the spirits.
To collect tributes from his
He provided over all guidance in the

Factors for the rise of the Nyamwezi Kingdom:

Nyamwezi who lived in central Tanzania area group of the Bantu societies. Each of these societies had their own settlements headed by a chief and titled Mtemi(Ntemi).

Ntemiship (chiefdom) was composed of people of shared background or kingship and believes. Each of the Nyamwezi kingdoms had a Ntemi at the centre who was helped by a council of elders the Wanyampala in administration.Towards the middle of 19th century more dynamic political structure developed among the Nyamwezi under Fundikira, Nyunguyamawe and Mirambo. This led to the institution of the Ntemi becoming one of the most powerful positions; the several Nyamwezi settlements were united under one senior Ntemi.

Factors for the rise of the Nyamwezi kingdom or chiefdom can be explained below as follows;

Ngoni invasions- the Ngoni invasions in Western Tanganyika made the Nyamwezi people to unite in order to resist the Ngoni attackers.
The expansion of real trade into the Regional trade/ Long distance trade due to emergency of wealthy traders like the Mirambo who made the effective use of Ruganga.
Penetration of the Europeans into the coastal interior This introduced new trading patterns to the Nyamwezi traders who joined together to effective resist European pressure to stop slave trade.
The rise of Mirambo as trader and leader used their influence to unite the Nyamwezi
The use of the gun and gun powder by the Mirambo’s solders; this caused the weakening of

watemi submissive to his rule.

Growth of the towns Example: Tabora and
Population
Unity among the

STATE ORGANIZATION.

State is a community occupying a certain given territory and living under full control of its government and therefore it is independent form of external control. State in East Africa mostly started to emerge in the 18th century AD due to the rapid spread of agricultural communities and improvement of science and technology. Clan which possessed a deliquate labour and land resources or had better skills of iron use became dominant clan and leader of the community or village; they were respected and obeyed by other clan members. Those who disagreed with them migrated to other lands. In this way leader of the dominant clan assumed political and spiritual or ritual functions. Kings and queens were state leaders.

Village heads who were leaders of many clans in villages were under state of kings or queens also had their court to deal with judicial matters.

GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.

Conquest- some powerful states conquered the weaker societies and therefore making them strong and For example Buganda conquered Bunyoro in the interlacustrine regions.
Trade-trade such as the Long distance trade enabled the society concerned to become strong and powerful after acquiring commodities of different types including weapons which were used for strengthening their societies. Baganda got guns from the East Coast to defend and expand. The empire of the Mali, Ghana and Songhai got metal and hoes from north Africa to strengthen their
Good climate and fertile soils(soil fertility) It led to the increase of food and assurance of feeding which led to population increase, a factor which was very important for the state formation. For instance heavy rainfall and fertile soil enabled production of more food and surplus in
Good leadership- some African rulers were strong and ambitious to expand their empire so they organized their people and got support from them for example: Kabanga of Buganda.
Availability of iron- iron promoted agricultural products and was used for making war weapons which in turn became most important for conquering other states.
Migration-this was a complimentary factor it happened that some people migrated to other states and brought with them new technology and skills which were used to expand and strengthen the new societies concerned.
Size of the kingdom- kingdoms that were small in size such as Buganda and Ghana were easier to organize,to administer effectively and to defend unlike the larger kingdoms like the Bunyoro; the effective control was impossible.

Types of states in Africa:

Each of the colonial African societies had a system of government that means each society had a set of rules, laws and traditions sometimes called customs that established part of a larger group. There were two dominant states emerged Africa and the varied more from one place to another;

Decentralized state(non-centralized) or stateless political societies
Centralized kingdoms and empires

DECENTRALIZED (NON CENTRALIZED STATE) OR STATELESS POLITICAL STATE.

These are societies that did not have well defined and complex or centralized system of government. These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other clan to dominance of wealth and political power.

Characteristics of decentralized states:

Most of them are small in terms of population and geographical
Stateless political societies in Africa were usually made up of a group of either neighboring towns or villages that had no political connection with a larger kingdom as a nation.
They are characterized by politically autonomous That is each village was politically separated and not connected to the neighboring village also no hereditary chiefs.
These were religious organization structures of kinship ties lineage groups and secret societies that provided regulations.
They did not have a system of chiefs, it showed position of chief was weak and was not
Chiefs were usually selected by a group of elders and not based on their family

Some decentralized societies did not have chiefs they were organized by a council of elders which comprised of many elderly people in the community.

CENTRALIZED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES.

These are large kingdoms or empires that developed in a complex system of government. These large empires governed by kings who had near absolute power such as Ancient Egypt in north Africa, Ghana, Mali and Songhai in West Africa, Zimbabwe(southern Africa), Bunyoro, Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Toro of East Africa. These kingdoms were similar to those empires in Asia and Europe that were in existence during the same time/period. MansaMusa of Mali and the Sunni Ally of Songhai had near absolute power and there were no separation of power. The political control such as executive, legislature and judicial functioning were centralized in the hands of the few people.Political societies refer to these societies as centralized.

SONGHAI EMPIRE (DEVELOPED TOWN OF GAO)

Another name for Songhai is Al Kaw Kaw

Rise 14th C AD
Fall in 16thC AD
Rulers;- Sunni Ali and Alasikia Mohammad
Morran invaded Songhai in 16th AD Forest states
AYO
IFE
BENIN
ASANTS
DOHAMEY ASANTE EMPIRE

The rise 18th C AD The fall 19th C AD

Founders and heads of the Asante

Founder- Akan people
Title of a ruler chiefs-Asante Hene
Symbol of the state-golden stool
Leaders- Obin Yaboa, Osei Tutu,and Opuku Ware States in the north east Africa.

Egypt
Nubian
Ethiopia Egypt

Grew between 1500- 5000BC the leader was Pharaoh. Buganda kingdom

Rise 14th and 15th C

Title of the leader- Kabaka.

FACTORS THAT GAVE RISE TO CENTRALIZED SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT

Existence of strong leadership for example among the Baganda, strong and able rulers such as Kyabagu, Suna and Mutesa 1 were able to unite the Baganda people and govern them.
Permanent cultivation and dense
A long period of war with neighbours encouraged the people to form one united state for the sake of security such as among the Sambaa and Baganda.
Strong army helped to conquer new areas and force the people to accept the ruler of one

E.g Chief Mirambo of Unyamwezi.

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